Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2020

The seven COAG targets are high level social and economic outcomes that must improve in order to achieve the priority outcomes. These indicators are often closely inter-related and positive change will generally require action across a range of areas. In addition, most of these high-level indicators are likely to take some time to improve, even if effective policies are implemented. Please note that the trend result is not an assessment of whether the target will be met.

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Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander boys born in 2015–2017 are expected to live to 71.6 years and girls to 75.6 years. This is 4.1 years longer than for boys and 2.5 years longer for girls born 10 years earlier (2005–2007), but changes were not statistically significant for girls.

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From 1998 to 2018, there was a significant decline in mortality rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children aged 0–4 years (from 217 to 141 deaths per 100 000 population), with the greatest decrease in the infant (0–<1 year) mortality rate (from 13 to 5 deaths per 1000 live births).

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In 2019, for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in the year before full time schooling:

• 92 per cent were enrolled in preschool, an increase since 2016
• 94 per cent were attending preschool, similar to 2016.

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Results for this indicator have fluctuated over time with no clear trend. Comparing 2008 and 2019, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students achieving national minimum standards increased for Years 3 and 5 for reading, and for Years 5 and 9 for numeracy. However, volatility in the data means conclusions drawn from comparisons should not be interpreted as consistent improvement over time.

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In 2019, the overall attendance rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students was 82 per cent, a decrease from 84 per cent in 2014.

The attendance rate for non-Indigenous students was 92 per cent in 2019.

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The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 20–24 year olds completing year 12 or equivalent or above increased from 45 per cent in 2008 to 66 per cent in 2018-19. For non-Indigenous people, the proportion remained relatively unchanged (90 per cent in 2017-18).

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Data for this indicator are difficult to interpret due to a number of changes including to the Community Development Employment Projects (CDEP) program, now the Community Development Program (CDP). The employment rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 15–64 year olds increased from 38 per cent in 1994 to 54 per cent in 2008, before decreasing to 49 per cent in 2018-19 (similar to 2012-13), partly driven by changes to the CDEP program.

The six headline indicators are high level social and economic outcomes that must improve in order to achieve the priority outcomes. These indicators are often closely inter-related and positive change will generally require action across a range of areas. In addition, most of these high-level indicators are likely to take some time to improve, even if effective policies are implemented.

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The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 20–64 year olds with a Certificate level III or above or studying increased from 26 per cent in 2002 to 50 per cent in 2018-19.

The gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and non-Indigenous people remained steady over the period at about 25 percentage points.

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In 2015, the rate of disability among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people was 24 per cent, little changed from 21 per cent in 2009. Chronic diseases can result in disability, and vice versa.

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The median equivalised gross weekly household (EGWH) income for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people was $553 in 2018-19.

Due to changes in data collection methodologies we cannot compare 2018-19 EGWH income with historical data. However, between 2002 and 2014-15 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s real EGWH increased by about 30 per cent.

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Child protection substantiations for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children increased from 28 per 1000 children in 2009-10 to 42 per 1000 children in 2016-17, before decreasing to 38 per 1000 children in 2018-19.

The rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in out-of-home care increased from 21 to 60 per 1000 children over the 14 years to 2018-19, while the proportion placed in accordance with the Aboriginal Child Placement Principle decreased.

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The 2018-19 collection was the first time these data were collected as part of the ABS National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey and are not comparable to data collected in ABS National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Surveys.

In 2018-19, about 16 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait people aged 15 years or over reported being a victim of physical or threatened harm in the past 12 months.

This proportion is about three times the rate for the total population aged 15 years or over.

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From 2000 to 2019, the imprisonment rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults increased 72 per cent.

The daily average detention rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth decreased from 2007-08 to 2018-19 (from 409 to 336 per 100 000 10–17 year olds), but remains about 22 times the rate for non-Indigenous youth.

Effective governance and leadership, and recognition of cultures, are essential to the wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. These influence most indicators in the framework that underpin this Report. Governance refers to the way the members of a group or community organise themselves to make decisions that affect themselves and others. Central to the development of strong governance is leadership, and there are specific cultural aspects to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander leadership. Cultures include the diverse Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander nations and peoples, each with distinct cultural norms, laws, languages and identities that are dynamic in nature.

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In 2018, more than 8 in 10 people in the general community felt it was important for all Australians to know about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and histories and about two in five rated their level of knowledge of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and histories as high — increases from 2014.

Over this period the proportions of people perceiving levels of trust as high have remained relatively unchanged.

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There are no data available on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people wanting to, and feeling that they can, participate in decision-making that is important to them. Available data on the participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people show they remain underrepresented in the Parliament of Australia and in all State and Territory parliaments. As of May 2020, parity across all nine jurisdictions would be achieved with 15 additional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander parliamentarians.

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The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 15 years or over who reported problems accessing services in the previous 12 months decreased from 30 per cent in 2008 to 24 per cent in 2014-15. Difficulty with access was higher in remote areas compared to non-remote areas (33 per cent compared to 22 per cent).

There is no trend category for this indicator, which is based on qualitative case studies. Governance arrangements that empower Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to achieve the things that matter to them, ensure they are able to participate in shared decision-making alongside governments. Case studies in this section highlight that this works best when structures, rules and laws:

• provide Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with decision-making authority
• promote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural frameworks, processes, context and time frames
• recognise power inequalities, and share power, through mechanisms that are transparent
• ensure Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people can choose their representatives, and these representatives have the resources and support that they need
• define desired outcomes, the steps to achieving them and the roles and responsibilities of participants, along with their mutual accountabilities.

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In 2014-15, similar to 2008, for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 3 years or over:

• 11 per cent were learning an Indigenous language, with the proportion highest for the youngest age group (19 per cent for 3–14 year olds)
• 16 per cent spoke an Indigenous language, with the proportion highest in remote areas (50 per cent).

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There is no main measure for this indicator. Data are reported on supplementary measures for students taught about Indigenous cultures as part of their studies and the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander school staff. In 2014-15, consistent with 2008, about 70 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 5–14 year olds reported being taught about Indigenous cultures at school. (No data are available for non-Indigenous people.)

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Results for this indicator are unclear as one measure (participation in sport and recreational activities) has shown progress while the other measure (participation in cultural events) has declined. Between 2002 and 2014-15, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 15 years or over attending cultural events in the past 12 months decreased (from 68 to 63 per cent), while the proportion participating in sport and recreational activities increased (from 49 to 59 per cent).

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In 2018-19, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults that recognised traditional lands was 74 per cent. Recognition was higher in remote areas (90 per cent) compared to non-remote areas (71 per cent).

For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 15 years and over the proportion increased from 2002 (70 per cent) to 2012-13 (74 per cent), where it remained in 2014-15 (data were not available for people aged less than 18 years for 2018-19).

A good start can help children to thrive and lead happy and healthy lives into adulthood. Addressing challenges in early childhood, including before children are born, can reduce the development of problems that would prevent them achieving their full potential. The indicators in this strategic area focus on the early drivers of long-term wellbeing which contribute to overcoming disadvantage.

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The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women who gave birth and attended at least one antenatal visit in the first trimester of pregnancy, increased from 50 per cent in 2011 to 66 per cent in 2018.

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mothers who smoked during pregnancy decreased from 52 per cent in 2009 to 44 per cent in 2018.

The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander teenage birth rate is at its lowest level since reporting began in 2004, with a rate of 48 births per 1000 women aged 15–19 years in 2018. The non-Indigenous teenage birth rate is also at its lowest level over this period, with a rate of 7 births per 1000 women of this age in 2018.

Nationally, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mothers who had low birthweight babies decreased from 11 per cent in 2007 to 10 per cent in 2018.

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Results for this indicator are difficult to interpret, as an increase in hospitalisations may indicate improved access to services rather than an increase in prevalence of underlying conditions. It is important to consider the leading causes, duration and frequency of children’s hospitalisations. Nationally in 2018-19, there were about 3 hospitalisations for every 10 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 0–4 year olds. This rate has increased by almost 40 per cent over the past decade.

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An increase in hospitalisations may indicate improved access to services rather than an increase in injuries and preventable diseases. This combined with no change in the death rate make the results difficult to interpret. Between 2010-11 and 2018-19, potentially preventable hospitalisation rates increased 25 per cent for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 0–4 year olds.

From 2009–2013 to 2014–2018 (for NSW, Queensland, WA, SA and the NT combined), the potentially avoidable death rate did not change substantially.

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 0–14 year olds with a self reported hearing condition decreased from 11 per cent in 2001 to 7 per cent in 2018-19. The rate for non-Indigenous children in 2017-18 was 3 per cent.

In 2018-19, the hospitalisation rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 0–14 year olds for ear and hearing problems was 9 per 1000 population, compared to 6 per 1000 population for non-Indigenous children.

From 2009 to 2018, the proportions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children classified as developmentally ‘on track’ increased in each domain of the Australian Early Development Census (from between 47–60 to 60–65 per cent). These proportions remain lower than those for non-Indigenous children (between 77–86 per cent) but the gap has narrowed in each domain since 2009.

Education is a life-long activity, beginning with learning and development in the home and in communities and continuing through to more formal settings of school education, vocational education and training and higher education. Education and training can help strengthen communities and regions both economically and socially, and there are strong links between higher levels of education and improved health outcomes.

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There is currently no nationally-agreed measure of teacher quality. The More Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Teachers Initiative (MATSITI) found that there were 3100 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander school teachers nationally in 2015, a net increase of 439 teachers from 2012. Of these teachers, 83 per cent were classroom teachers, 7 per cent were deputy principals and 3 per cent were principals.

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There is currently no nationally-agreed definition of school engagement and hence no agreed measure. Aspects measured in this Report include attendance (aspect of behavioural engagement) in section 4.5 and sense of belonging (aspect of emotional engagement). Data show that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students’ and non-Indigenous students’ sense of belonging at school has been decreasing since 2003.

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The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 17–24 year olds participating in post-school education, training or employment was 36 per cent in 2018-19, similar to 2002.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s understanding of health is holistic and encompasses physical, mental, cultural and spiritual health. Good health and wellbeing depends on the network of individuals, family, kin, and community, and it recognises an individual’s connection to land (which is central to wellbeing), culture, spirituality and ancestors. If the harmony of these interrelations is disrupted, it can lead to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s ill health.

Health outcomes directly affect the quality and length of people’s lives, including their ability to socialise with family and friends, to participate in the community and to work and earn an income. Physical health outcomes reflect such things as a healthy living environment and access to and use of health and community services. Mental health outcomes are related to a complex range of medical issues, historical and lifestyle factors, and the stressors associated with entrenched disadvantage and drug and substance misuse.

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The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people 15 years or over reporting their health as excellent or very good in 2018-19 (45 per cent) is largely unchanged from 2002 (44 per cent) following a decrease in 2012-13 (39 per cent).

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults in 2018-19 reporting not seeing a doctor in the previous 12 months when needed (19 per cent) is largely unchanged from 2012-13.

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Results for this indicator are difficult to interpret. These hospitalisations are a proxy measure as increasing hospitalisations for potentially preventable conditions may represent a lack of access to primary care but could also reflect better access to hospital services. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, hospitalisation rates for potentially preventable chronic, acute and vaccine-preventable conditions have increased over time.

Between 1998 and 2018 (for NSW, Queensland, WA, SA and the NT), mortality rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from potentially avoidable deaths declined by 40 per cent.

Between 2001 and 2018-19, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults who were current daily smokers decreased from 51 per cent to 40 per cent.

Smoking rates have also decreased for non-Indigenous adults at a similar rate, but from a lower base.

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The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults who were overweight or obese increased from 69 per cent in 2012-13 to 74 per cent in 2018-19.

Supplementary data on children’s fruit and vegetable intake in 2017–19 show that 69 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children reported adequate daily intake of fruit (76 per cent for non-Indigenous children), and about 6 per cent of all children reported adequate daily vegetable intake.

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Nationally comparable time series data on tooth decay are not available. Accurate data on dental health are relatively old (for children, the most recent data are for 2012-14 and for adults are for 2017-18). Supplementary data for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 15 years or over show that in 2018-19, 51 per cent reported the loss of one or more teeth, similar to 2012-13.

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The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults who reported high/very high levels of psychological distress increased from 27 per cent in 2004-05 to 33 per cent in 2014-15 and were similar in 2018-19 (31 per cent).

After adjusting for population age structures, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults experiencing high/very high psychological distress in 2018-19 was more than twice the proportion for non-Indigenous adults in 2017-18.

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After adjusting for population age structures, the suicide death rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people increased by about 40 per cent over the decade to 2018, and continues to be about twice the rate for non-Indigenous people.

Rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men are about three-and-a-half times the rate for women (and rising).

Participation in the economy can significantly influence living standards. The extent to which people participate in the economy is closely related to their personal circumstances.

For employed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 18–64 year olds, the proportion who are in full time employment increased from 55 per cent in 2002 to 63 per cent in 2014-15, and remained at this level in 2018-19.

As at 30 June 2019, native title had been determined to exist in about 40 per cent of Australia (up from 5 per cent in 2004) and registered Indigenous Land Use Agreements covered 33 per cent of Australia.

In May 2020, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people collectively owned or controlled 15 per cent of land in Australia, with most of this land in very remote areas — similar to 2014 and 2016.

In 2018-19, 11 per cent of employed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults were self-employed — up from 6 per cent in 2011–13, and similar to 2014–15.

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults living in a home owned or being purchased by a member of their household increased from 22 per cent in 1994 to 27 per cent in 2002, and has remained at a similar level since (31 per cent in 2018-19). The proportion for non-Indigenous adults decreased from 74 to 68 per cent between 2002 and 2017-18 (earlier data are not available).

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A lack of comparable data has limited analysis of income sources over time. In 2018-19, government pensions and allowances (45 per cent) and employee income (44 per cent) were jointly the main source of personal cash income for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 18−64 years.

Environmental conditions in the home are key to the wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Environmental health relates to physical, chemical and biological factors external to a person which potentially affect their health. Better environmental health can have positive outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and is especially beneficial for children’s physical and emotional wellbeing.

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living in overcrowded households decreased from 27 per cent in 2004-05 to 18 per cent in 2018-19, including a decrease in overcrowding in all remote areas from 53 to 42 per cent.

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Results for this indicator are difficult to interpret with an increase in the hospitalisation rate but no change in the death rate. For NSW, Victoria, Queensland, WA, SA and the NT combined, from 2010-11 to 2018-19, hospitalisation rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people increased for just over half of the selected diseases.

For NSW, Queensland, WA, SA and the NT combined, from 2009–2013 to 2014–2018, the death rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from diseases associated with poor environmental health remained relatively unchanged.

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Data on access to water, sewerage and electricity services in discrete Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities are relatively old and with limited time series. The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander households living in houses of an acceptable standard (including structural issues and working facilities) was 80 per cent in 2018-19, similar to 2008 (following a decrease to 78 per cent in 2012-13).

Safe and supportive families and communities provide a resilient, caring and protective environment, promoting a range of positive outcomes. However, the history of colonisation and intergenerational trauma has deeply affected Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people as individuals and communities in many ways. This trauma has contributed to family and community disruption, alcohol and drug misuse, violence and harm, and contact with the criminal justice system.

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In 2018-19, 20 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults reported exceeding lifetime alcohol risk guidelines, similar to 2012-13.

The proportion who reported exceeding the single occasion risk guidelines at least once in the previous 12 months was 53 per cent, also similar to 2012-13.

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The majority of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults do not misuse substances. In 2018-19, 70 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults reported they had not misused substances in the previous 12 months.

But the proportion who report that they are misusing has increased over time (from 23 per cent in 2002 to 28 per cent in 2018-19, with the increase occurring between 2012-13 and 2014-15).

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Nationally comparable data are not currently available. For most jurisdictions the average diversion rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous young people over the last four years (2015‑16 to 2018-19) was lower or the same as in the preceding four years (2010-11 to 2014-15), indicating a trend nationally towards less diversion.

In 2018-19, rates of diversions for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people were between 39 and 88 per cent below the rates for non-Indigenous young people.

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On 30 June 2019, 78 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adult prisoners had a known prior imprisonment, compared with 50 per cent of non-Indigenous prisoners. These proportions have remained relatively unchanged since 2000.

Over the period 2000-01 to 2018-19, 55 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people in sentenced supervision had more than one supervised sentence, compared to 34 per cent for non-Indigenous young people.

More on page 11.25

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Whilst there is no overall measure of community functioning, outcomes for 2014-15 are not significantly different to those for 2008, for the six themes that make up community functioning: connectedness to Country; land and history; culture and identity; resilience; leadership; having a role, structure and routine; feeling safe; and vitality.

More on page 11.34

• Chapter 1  (PDF - 522 Kb)
• Chapter 1  (Word - 93 Kb)
• 1.1 About this edition of the OID report
• 1.2 The historical context
• 1.3 Profile of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population today

• Chapter 2  (PDF - 932 Kb)
• Chapter 2  (Word - 520 Kb)
• 2.1 The focus of the framework is on outcomes
• 2.2 Interactions across the framework

• Chapter 3  (PDF - 316 Kb)
• Chapter 3  (Word - 52 Kb)
• 3.1 Understanding outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people
• 3.2 Improving outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

• Chapter 4 and attachments  (PDF - 24 541 Kb)
• Chapter 4  (Word - 660 Kb)
• Attachment tables  (XLSX - 2934 Kb)
• Pivot tables - Reading, Writing and Numeracy  (XLSX - 3891 Kb)
• 4.1 Life expectancy
• 4.2 Young child mortality
• 4.3 Early childhood education
• 4.4 Reading, writing and numeracy
• 4.5 Year 1 to 10 attendance
• 4.6 Year 12 attainment
• 4.7 Employment
• 4.8 Post-secondary education — participation and attainment
• 4.9 Disability and chronic disease
• 4.10 Household and individual income
• 4.11 Substantiated child abuse and neglect
• 4.12 Family and community violence
• 4.13 Imprisonment and youth detention

• Chapter 5 and attachments  (PDF - 4778 Kb)
• Chapter 5  (Word - 184 Kb)
• Attachment tables  (XLSX - 1166 Kb)
• 5.1 Valuing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and their cultures
• 5.2 Participation in decision-making
• 5.3 Engagement of services
• 5.4 Case studies in governance
• 5.5 Indigenous language revitalisation and maintenance
• 5.6 Indigenous cultural studies
• 5.7 Participation in community activities
• 5.8 Access to traditional lands and waters

• Chapter 6 and attachments  (PDF - 5097 Kb)
• Chapter 6  (Word - 436 Kb)
• Attachment tables  (XLSX - 1485 Kb)
• 6.1 Antenatal care
• 6.2 Health behaviours during pregnancy
• 6.3 Teenage birth rate
• 6.4 Birthweight
• 6.5 Early childhood hospitalisations
• 6.6 Injury and preventable diseases
• 6.7 Ear health
• 6.6 Basic skills for life and learning

• Chapter 7 and attachments  (PDF - 1574 Kb)
• Chapter 7  (Word - 110 Kb)
• Attachment tables  (XLSX - 184 Kb)
• 7.1 Teacher quality
• 7.2 School engagement
• 7.3 Transition from school to work

• Chapter 8 and attachments  (PDF - 5676 Kb)
• Chapter 8  (Word - 473 Kb)
• Attachment tables  (XLSX - 1759 Kb)
• 8.1 Access to primary health care
• 8.2 Potentially preventable hospitalisations
• 8.3 Potentially avoidable deaths
• 8.4 Tobacco consumption and harm
• 8.5 Obesity and nutrition
• 8.6 Oral health
• 8.7 Mental health
• 8.8 Suicide and self-harm

• Chapter 9 and attachments  (PDF - 7698 Kb)
• Chapter 9  (Word - 340 Kb)
• Attachment tables  (XLSX - 4053 Kb)
• 9.1 Employment by full time/part time status, sector and occupation
• 9.2 Indigenous owned or controlled land and business
• 9.3 Home ownership
• 9.4 Income support

• Chapter 10 and attachments  (PDF - 1881 Kb)
• Chapter 10  (Word - 168 Kb)
• Attachment tables  (XLSX - 592 Kb)
• 10.1 Overcrowding in housing
• 10.2 Rates of disease associated with poor environmental health
• 10.3 Access to clean water and functional sewerage and electricity services

• Chapter 11 and attachments  (PDF - 4482 Kb)
• Chapter 11  (Word - 115 Kb)
• Attachment tables  (XLSX - 1781 Kb)
• 11.1 Alcohol consumption and harm
• 11.2 Drug and other substance use and harm
• 11.3 Youth diversions
• 11.4 Repeat offending
• 11.5 Community functioning

• Chapter 12 and attachments  (PDF - 1251 Kb)
• Chapter 12  (Word - 198 Kb)
• Attachment tables  (XLSX - 211 Kb)